What was Manicheism??

Mani’s Life

Personal details about Mani are sparse, and reports about him by enemies of Manicheism are in some instances contradictory, if not simply fabricated. We are fortunate, though, to possess Manichean documents, thanks to a number of discoveries, notably in northwest China (Turkestan) at the beginning of this century and in Egypt (Medinet Madi) in the 1930s. Mention should also be made of a fourth-century Latin text discovered in 1918, near Tabessa (Algeria) and now in Paris, of a fourth-or fifth-century Greek manuscript from Egypt (known as the Cologne Mani Codex and titled “On the Becoming of His Body”) containing Mani’s early life, and of writings in various languages from a Manichean settlement, also of the fourth century, under excavation in Ismant el-Kharab (Egypt) since the mid-1980s.

Mani was born in Babylonia, then under Persian control, on 14 April 216. His family belonged to the Elchasaites, a branch of Jewish Christianity through which Mani may have become acquainted with (besides Christianity) some of the gnostic ideas we find in his system. At the age of twelve he received a divine revelation, and another at twenty-four. These left him convinced that the revelations of previous religious founders, notably Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus, though authentic, were incomplete, and that it was Mani’s task to bring to the world the fullness of revelation through what he called the “Religion of Light.” It is for this reason that Mani’s followers referred to him as the one in whom the Paraclete resides. Mani habitually styled himself “apostle of Jesus Christ.”

After the second revelation, in 242 or 243 Mani embarked on a journey which took him as far as India. He returned to Persia and presented himself before Shapur, king of Persia, to publicly announce his divine mission. The king was encouraging (so much so that Mani dedicated his first writing to him), and the new revelation was thus permitted to spread over the next thirty years. But in 274, doubtless under pressure from the official Magian religion, Mani incurred the displeasure of the new king, Bahram I, who had him executed on 26 February 277.

Mani had already sent out missionaries (they reached Egypt, among other lands), but when his death sparked a wave of persecutions against his followers, Manicheism’s spread eastward and westward became more pronounced. In the east Mani’s successors at the head of the religion settled on Ctesiphon as their headquarters. Manicheism became the state religion of the Uigurs in Chinese Turkestan from 762 until about 840. From there it went still further east, into China, Siberia, and Manchuria. Moving west, it passed through Syria and Cappadocia and reached Carthage, Rome, and Egypt toward the end of the third century. From there it entered North Africa.

In Roman territory Manicheism soon encountered opposition from successive governments, beginning with Diocletian’s (284–305). The primary objection to the movement from the civil authorities’ standpoint seems to have been its origins in Persia, Rome’s longtime archenemy. The first literary attack on Manichean doctrines came from a pagan philosopher, Alexander of Lycopolis (in Egypt). But it was not long before orthodox Christians also began to voice their opposition to Manichean writings, beliefs, and practices. Notable among these opponents are Ephrem (the Deacon) of Nisibis in Syria, the author (Hegemonius?) of the “Acts of Archelaus,” Serapion of Thmuis (Egypt), Titus of Bostra (Syria), Epiphanius of Salamis (Cyprus), and the Africans Marius Victorinus and Augustine. These all hail from the fourth or early fifth centuries. Other anti-Manichean writers would follow, notably the Syrians Severus of Antioch (sixth century) and Theodore bar Khoni (eighth century) and the Arabs Ibn Wadih al-Ya’qubi (ninth century), an-Nadim (tenth century), al-Beruni (eleventh century), and al-Sharastani (twelfth century). There is no evidence for western Manicheism after the sixth century, but some of its ideas lived on in “neo-Manichean” groups such as the Paulicians, Bogomils, and Albigensians.

Mani’s Religion

Over the past two and a half centuries a great deal of discussion has taken place about Manicheism’s exact relationship to Christianity. Augustine himself refers at various times to Manichees as a sect, heretics, or schismatics, which means that he thought of Manicheism as a distortion of Christianity. His Manichean opponents consistently refer to themselves as Christian, indeed as belonging to the only authentic form of Christianity. During the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth centuries, the view predominated that Manicheism was mainly inspired by Eastern religions such as Buddhism and Zoroastrianism. However, since the discovery of Manichean documents like the Cologne Mani Codex, scholarship now leans toward the view that Manicheism, and Mani himself, were more strongly influenced by some form of Christian ideas than by any other source. Still, the Christian elements were emphasized to a greater or lesser degree by the religion’s proponents according to the religious traditions of the geographical region they sought to proselytize.

Manicheism endured from the third century to at least the seventeenth, and eventually spread over an area stretching from North Africa to China. Though its belief system is highly complex and is couched in allegory and symbol, its main tenets seem to have been held by Manichees everywhere, although there were differences on less essential points, attributable to the passage of time, regional adaptations, or both. For the purposes of this volume, it will be useful to describe the essentials of Manicheism insofar as Augustine probably knew it.

The teaching of this religion starts with a question basic to all religious systems: Why does evil exist? Manicheism’s answer comes in the shape of a radical dualism. It proposes a cosmogony, or explanation of the world’s origins, in three moments or phases. In the first of these, two coeternal principles exist completely separated from each other. One, the good, displays only agreeable qualities (peace, intelligence, and so on) and dwells in the realm of light, which is made up of this principle’s substance. This principle is God, or the “Father of Greatness.” The other principle is intrinsically evil and disagreeable. Often called “matter,” or Satan, this principle inhabits the realm of its own substance, which is darkness. On three sides the two realms are infinite, but a fourth side of each touches the other realm.

The second (or middle) moment refers to the present condition of everything. It began when, during the turmoil which endlessly takes place in the realm of darkness, the evil principle rose to the area bordering on the realm of light. Seeing that light, the dark principle desired it, and thereupon invaded the light-realm. As a defense, the good principle evoked (the preferred Manichean term) the “Mother of Life.” She in turn evoked the “Primal Human,” who was charged with defending the light-realm. Both entities were composed of the good principle’s own light-substance. After a long battle the evil principle overcame the Primal Human and captured his light, though some of the evil principle’s forces (demons, both male and female) were in turn captured by forces of the light-realm. This is how light and darkness, good and evil, first became mixed.

This explanation was to furnish the arsenal of Manicheism’s opponents with a two-edged sword: first, it fueled the argument that God, the good principle, could be threatened, and finally diminished, since all light, wherever found, is in essence the divine substance; and secondly, it opened to ridicule the view of two absolutely opposed first principles, one of which (evil) had to have something in common with the other (good) to explain its attraction. The evil could therefore not be entirely evil, nor the good (by its vulnerability) entirely good.

Now the good principle sent other beings to free the Primal Human. In this they succeeded, but some particles of light remained mixed with the dark. It is of this mixture of light and dark elements that our present, visible world is constituted, such that whatever we find pleasing in it is attributable to the presence of entrapped light, and whatever is disagreeable is due to the dark which is the light’s prison.

To provide a way of freeing this imprisoned light, the good principle took two steps. First, the Father of Greatness created a mechanism for liberation of the light. This includes the moon and sun, which were considered to comprise uncontaminated light-substance and to serve as collector stations (“light-ships”) for light which had been freed; they would then pass that light back to the realm of light. The material creation was thus an act of necessity, a means for the light-substance to regain what it had lost.

The second step was to send the “Third Messenger” to the demons captured in the cosmic battle and to entice them into releasing their captured light-particles by appearing to each in the form of a desirable being of the opposite gender. The light thus released was sent on its way to the light-realm via the moon and sun. The particles of dark-substance which came out of the demons were allowed to fall to the visible earth.

Seeing these developments and their purpose, the evil principle retaliated by creating a rival to the Primal Human. This was accomplished by having a male and female demon mate, and their union produced Adam, the first earthly human. Adam was the world in miniature, a microcosm, since he contained within himself both light (soul) and matter (body). Later the demons mated again and produced Eve, the first woman. She was of a composition similar to Adam’s, although she seems to have contained less light than he. The first human parents therefore, far from being a creation of God, resulted from evil’s initiative, and were intended to keep as much light entrapped in the visible world as possible, chiefly by generating offspring.

To counter evil’s new tactic, “Jesus” was sent from the light-realm to reveal divine knowledge (gnosis) to Adam and Eve. This Jesus is not precisely the one central to orthodox Christianity, for Manicheism seems to propose several entities called “Jesus” or “Christ.” Augustine knew of at least three (c. Faust. 20.11): Jesus the Splendor, identified with light freed and deposited in the moon and sun (which were therefore objects of reverence); the suffering Jesus, who is the light trapped in our material world; and Jesus, “Son of God,” who came to earth in human appearance and who only appeared to suffer and die at Pilate’s hands. None of these Christs is in fact a savior, except insofar as one or the other is the bearer of saving knowledge. On the other hand, the Jesus of Christian orthodoxy was considered false, the devil in disguise. It was he who was truly nailed to the cross, since he had a physical body—unthinkable for a being sent from the light-realm on a saving mission. Since human flesh has evil origins and comes about through procreation (an act which emulates the demonic origin of Adam and Eve), Manicheism’s “true Jesus” could not have been born of Mary, nor indeed been born at all. This teaching was, of course, one of the main points of contention between Manicheism and orthodox Christianity.

The release of light from matter was to continue in this world through the agency of full members of the Manichean religion. These were the Elect (perfect, or holy, ones). Their ranks included both women and men; however, it seems that only men belonged to the upper hierarchical levels of presbyters (such as Fortunatus); bishops (like Faustus), possibly sometimes referred to as deacons; and teachers (of whom Adimantus was probably one). Some eastern Manichean documents also mention other titles, such as singers and scribes, but these may have had limited functions, connected with cult or the arrangements of community living. The other main division in Manicheism was that of Hearers, or catechumens, and also included both men and women.

The third and final cosmogonical moment involves the return to the order of the first moment. It will occur when as much light as possible has been released from matter through the agency of the Elect. At that future time a great fire will erupt to complete the process. The universe will then disappear, and the evil principle and all its substance will be forced to withdraw into the realm of darkness and again be completely separated from the light-realm. But the restored order will not be exactly what it was at the beginning, for some of the light will remain entrapped in the dark-realm and will therefore be forever lost. This, as adversaries were eager to point out, implies the eternally wounded or diminished condition of the good principle.

Asceticism

In the Manichean perspective each living being on the earth is a microcosm of the pristine battle, for each contains both matter and light-substance. That is especially true of human beings, as the Manichees’ reworking of the creation myth makes clear. All humans are called to remove themselves as far as possible from the consequences of this mixed condition. Not all, of course, respond to the call, or are even aware of it. The Manichees are those who have clearly heard the call and know the true response. Among these fortunate members of the human race, some, the Elect, are also the instruments whereby the release of light from its material prison is effected. This is their most sacred task, which they carry out through digestion, for one of the paradoxes of the religion is that, though all human bodies have a demonic origin, some are the immediate instruments of salvation, that is, of light’s release. As this light was seen to be in all things in varying degrees (meat and wine, e.g., contained none), the diet prescribed for the Elect consisted mainly of certain grains, vegetables, and fruits, as well as some spices and juices, all identified by their bright color as containing more light. (Augustine mentions some of these in mor. 2.13.29–2.16.53 and c. Faust. 5.10.)

In essence, then, the real saviors in Manicheism are the Elect (a point Augustine scores several times). This is why they were required to practice a rigorous asceticism, for they, more than all other members of the human race, had to be as uninvolved with matter as possible while carrying out their task of releasing as much light as they could. The ascetical code the Elect had to follow consisted of three “seals” and five “commandments.” The commandments were: not to lie, not to kill, to eat no meat, to remain pure (essentially, from sexual relations), and to own nothing. The “seal of the mouth” ordained vigilance over one’s senses, abstention from blasphemy, and the avoidance of prohibited foods. The “seal of the hands” imposed vigilance over one’s actions and forbade the killing of any living thing (whose light-particles were identified with the “suffering Jesus” suspended on the “cross of light”), including harvesting their own food. The “seal of thought” meant not thinking anything out of harmony with the realm of light and the light-freeing process.

Since they had to be models of aloofness from this world, the Elect had to observe frequent prayer (seven times a day) and fasting (about a quarter of the days in the year, including the month preceding Manicheism’s principal feast day). Since they could have no family ties nor own anything, it was assumed (at least in western forms of Manicheism) that they would be perpetual wanderers. And since they could kill nothing, not even collect their own food, others had to do this for them. This task fell upon the Hearers and constituted their primary religious duty. Hearers were therefore subject to a less demanding behavioral code. They had to avoid lying, murder, theft, adultery, and the neglect of their religious tasks; but they could do manual labor, could own property, and were permitted to “kill,” that is, harvest and prepare the food they offered to the Elect. Their own diet was less restrictive. They had to observe fewer fasts (fifty days of the year, probably on Sundays) and less frequent prayer (four times a day). They could also marry (though procreation was discouraged even for them).

At death, the Elect’s destiny was to have his or her own light-substance start its journey back to the light-realm; that of the Hearer was to be reincarnated as an Elect, and so at last become eligible for salvation. All physical bodies, as well as the light entrapped in non-Manichees, were destined for hell.

Sacred Writings

One of Mani’s claims to be a revealer was that he was the first religious founder to leave writings of his own. Various sources ascribe seven works to his authorship: Shapurakan, Book of the Giants, Great (or Living) Gospel, Treasure, Pragmateia (possibly the same as the Great Letter to Pattik), Mysteries, and Letters. These constituted the Manichean canon, but only the last five seem to have been known to the Manichees with whom Augustine associated. Mani is also credited with having prepared a picture book which explained his teachings to the unlettered. None of these works has survived in its entirety, although we have excerpts from some of them.

Since it considered matter to be synonymous with evil and saw the material creation as a work of necessity rather than of love, Manicheism repudiated the presentation of creation found in Genesis, along with its creator God (identified with the principle of evil). It went on to reject the Old Testament itself as well as everything it considered “Jewish interpolations” in the New Testament. The proof of the evil origin of the rejected scriptures lay in their content, for they presented a god who was subject to anger, jealousy, revenge, and the like, and who encouraged acts of immorality, such as the slaying of enemies, polygamy, and procreation.

Nevertheless, Manichees did attribute a revelatory (albeit imperfect) character to what remained of the New Testament after “decontamination.” They felt a special affinity for Paul, and probably share responsibility for the renewed interest in Pauline literature which took place in the Roman Empire during the fourth century. Manicheism also made use of some of the pseudepigrapha, particularly those in use among gnostics, such as the Acts of Thomas and the Acts of Peter, which they sometimes revised for their own purposes.

Cultic Practices

We possess a great many Manichean liturgical texts (psalms, prayers, readings), but little information on how liturgies themselves were conducted. We know that Manichees repudiated water baptism but held frequent penitential rites, perhaps every Monday, which was the weekly holy day. At the weekly service Hearers and Elect appear to have gathered separately. Manicheism’s principal liturgical feast was the Bema, observed on the day of Mani’s death. The Bema celebration seems to have centered on a chair or throne (bema in Greek), usually with Mani’s portrait placed upon it. According to a Coptic source (the ninth Kephalaion), the Bema feast was also the occasion when new Elect and Hearers were inducted into the community. The ceremony of initiation of Elect consisted of five steps (reflecting the general importance of that number in the religion): a sign of peace was given to the candidate, who then took the right hand of each Elect present. Next, the presider led the candidate to the center of the ceremonial space (ekklesia) which represented the universal Manichean church. There the candidate exchanged a kiss with, and made a sign of veneration to, each Elect. Finally, there came the cheirotonia, the imposition of the presider’s right hand on the head of the candidate, the act which officially made the candidate an Elect. Essentially the same rite took place for admitting an Elect to a hierarchical grade. We do not possess information on the rite for admitting Hearers.

According to the same Coptic source, the emphasis on the right hand was intended to recall elements of the cosmogonical myth: before the Primal Human goes into battle, the “Mother of Life” places her right hand on him, then clasps his hand with hers. The Living Spirit does the same after the Primal Human’s rescue and return. The purpose of the rite was therefore eschatological: it signified both the sending of the Elect to carry out his or her task of freeing the light and the Elect’s welcome into the light-realm after death. Though this description of the rite and its interpretation derive from a single source, there is no reason to think it does not apply to Manichees of other times and places.

Kevin J. Coyle, “Mani, Manicheism,” in Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia, ed. Allan D. Fitzgerald (Grand Rapids, MI; Cambridge, U.K.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1999), 520–524.